The most common and most likely answer to this crossword clue is the 6 letter word HULLED
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Buddy explains!
The straight part
We know that "Stripped" is the straight/definition part of the clue. The straight part is often a synonym or definition, in this case stripped = hulled.The cryptic/wordplay part
In cryptic crossword there's often an wordplay/cryptic part as well.This part involves a more complex hint, such as an anagram, homophone, hidden word, etc.
Sadly, We don't have an explanation for this specific crossword clue yet.
What does HULLED mean?
HULLED verb- To remove the outer covering of a fruit or seed.
- To drift; to be carried by the impetus of wind or water on the ship's hull alone, with sails furled.
- To hit (a ship) in the hull with cannon fire etc.
- Deprived of the hulls.
- Having a hull.